Research on CFAP418, platelet mitochondrial DNA mutations and LARS2 is summarized, with how genetic testing confirms a mitochondrial diagnosis and guides care.
Enzyme defects leave partly broken-down sugar chains in the body, producing the bone, facial, liver, heart and breathing signs grouped as mucopolysaccharidoses.
Muscle weakness, hypotonia and paralysis can trace to gene mutations or metabolic disease; Floppy Baby Syndrome and FSHD show what testing can find.
Four disorders reach the pancreas: hereditary hemochromatosis, Down syndrome, HNF1B-related incomplete pancreas and cystic fibrosis, each with its own genetic test.
Microcephaly, linked to the microcephalin and ASPM genes, and hypoplastic left heart syndrome show what prenatal and preimplantation testing can tell families.
Unexplained cyanosis, breathlessness and fatigue may point to arteriovenous malformation or pulmonary arterial hypertension; BMPR2 testing and its limits are set out.
Nearsightedness, farsightedness and astigmatism arise from corneal shape, eye length and lens power, with research on bestrophinopathy, keratoconus and nanophthalmos.
Bones, joints and connective tissue are affected in osteogenesis imperfecta, achondroplasia and Marfan syndrome; exome sequencing and prenatal panels are explained.